Collaborative projects are common in many fields and disciplines, as individuals with various realms of expertise work together to accomplish goals and create products. Writing is a key part of communication that enables these projects to happen, but it also is often the deliverable—the final product that a team can pass on to another team, to executives and administrators, to consumers, or to the public. Working as a team to write a document usually means that each individual member writes less content than they would for an individual project. However, to create a coherent document written in one voice, teams must plan carefully and revise thoughtfully.

The following section examines in more depth how writing in general, and collaborative writing specifically, is crucial in any field. Many people don’t realize how much writing their job entails. However, as you will see in this section, such perceptions are often misinformed.

The writing process at work, at least in part, entails working collaboratively to gather, organize, manage, and distribute information.^[1] This information is often carefully analyzed and used to make important decisions, so it is critical that team members collaborate effectively in managing related communications tasks.

Most professionals report spending a considerable amount of their time writing, and they frequently engage in collaborative writing. A recent survey asked various professionals what portion of their work week was devoted to writing, collaborative writing, and international communications.^[2] The results shown in Table 3.1 indicate that collaborative writing makes up a significant portion of overall writing tasks.

Table 3.1. Percentage of total work week that engineers report spending on communications tasks.

Activity	% of Work Week for Engineers	% of Work Week for Programmers
Time spent writing	35	25
Time spent planning and writing documents collaboratively	19	12
Time spent communicating internationally (across national borders)	14	18

Like any kind of teamwork, collaborative writing requires the entire team to be focused on a common objective. According to Lowry, et al., an effective team “negotiates, coordinates, and communicates during the creation of a common document.”^[3] The collaborative writing process is iterative and social, meaning the team works together and communicates back and forth throughout the process.

Collaborative Writing Stages and Strategies

Successful collaborative writing is made easier when you understand the collaborative writing strategies you can apply, the best ways to manage a document undergoing revisions, and the different roles people can assume in the writing process.

Collaborative writing strategies are methods a team uses to coordinate the writing of a collaborative document. There are five main strategies: single-author; sequential; parallel writing: horizontal division; parallel writing: stratified division; and reactive writing.

Each strategy has its advantages and disadvantages. Effective teams working on longer-term projects tend to use a combination of collaborative writing strategies for different points in the project. When planning to switch between writing strategies, it is important to make sure the team is communicating clearly regarding which strategy will be used for which task. See Table 3.2^[4] for a detailed breakdown of these strategies, their advantages, and disadvantages. Can you think of any other benefits or limitations?

Table 3.2 Collaborative writing strategies. 

Writing Strategy	When to Use	Pros	Cons
Single-Author One member writes for the entire group.	For simple tasks; when little buy-in is needed; for small groups.	Efficient; consistent style	May not clearly represent group’s intentions; less consensus produced
Sequential Each member is in charge of writing a specific part and write in sequence	For asynchronous work with poor coordination; when it’s hard to meet often; for straightforward writing tasks; small groups	Easy to organize; simplifies planning	Can lose sense of group; subsequent writers may invalidate previous work; lack of consensus; version control issues
Parallel Writing: Horizontal Division Members are in charge of writing a specific part but write in parallel. Segments are distributed randomly.	For high volume, rapid output; with supporting software; for complicated, difficult-to-segment tasks; when people have different talents/skills; for groups with good structure and coordination; small to large groups	Efficient; high volume of quality output; better use of individual talent	Redundant work can be produced; writers can be blind to each other’s work; stylistic differences; potential information overload
Parallel Writing: Stratified Division                              Members are in charge of writing a specific part but write in parallel. Segments are distributed based on talents or skills.	For high volume rapid output; with supporting software; for complicated, difficult to segment tasks; when people have different talents/skills; for groups with good structure and coordination; small to large groups	Efficient; high volume of quality output; better use of individual talent	Redundant work can be produced; writers can be blind to each other’s work; stylistic differences; potential information overload
Reactive Writing Members create a document in real time, while others review, react, and adjust to each other’s changes and additions without much preplanning or explicit coordination.	Small groups; high levels of creativity; high levels of consensus on process and content	Can build creativity and consensus	Very hard to coordinate; version control issues

Document management reflects the approaches used to maintain version control of a document and describe who is responsible for it. Four main control modes (centralized, relay, independent, and shared) are listed in Table 3.3, along with their pros and cons. Can you think of any more, based on your experience?

Table 3.3. Document control modes. 

Mode	Description	Pros	Cons
Centralized	When one person controls the document throughout the process	Can be useful for maintaining group focus and when working toward a strict deadline	Non-controlling members may feel a lack of ownership or control of what goes into the document
Relay	When one person at a time is in charge but the control changes in the group	Democratic	Less efficient
Independent	When one person maintains control of their assigned portion	Useful for remote teams working on distinct parts	Often requires an editor to pull it together; can reflect a group that lacks agreement
Shared	When everyone has simultaneous and equal privileges	Can be highly effective; non-threatening; good for groups working face to face, who meet frequently, who have high levels of trust	Can lead to conflict, especially in remote or less functional groups

Roles refer to the different duties participants might undertake. In addition to whatever roles and responsibilities that individual team members perform throughout other stages of their project, the actual stages of composing and revising their document may require writing-specific roles. Members of small teams must fill multiple roles when prewriting, drafting, and revising a document collaboratively. The list below describes several roles within a collaborative writing team. Which role(s) have you had in a group project? Are there ones you always seem to do? Ones that you prefer, dislike, or would like to try?

• Writer. A person who is responsible for writing a portion of the content.
• Consultant. A person external to the project and who has no ownership or responsibility for producing content, but who offers content- and process-related feedback (peer reviewers outside the team instructor).
• Editor. A person who is responsible for the overall content production of the writer and can make both style and content changes; typically has ownership of the content production.
• Reviewer. A person, internal or external, who provides specific content feedback but is not responsible for making changes.
• Project Manager. A person who is part of the team and may fully participate in authoring and reviewing the content, but who also leads the team through their processes through such activities as planning, rewarding, and motivating.
• Facilitator. A person external to the team who leads the team through processes but doesn’t give content-related feedback.

Documents and Tools to Improve Team Effectiveness

There are several tools and strategies that teams can use to improve their functioning and productivity. Some examples include using the following documents:

Team Charter

While all members of a project team may be working toward the same goals, they may have different visions of what a successful and productive team dynamic looks like. Each member also knows their own schedules, strengths, and weaknesses better than those of the others. Further still, it is impossible to predict what difficulties may emerge as the team works toward their project goals.

Composing a team charter (sometimes called a group contract) is an effective strategy for addressing potential obstacles to group harmony and goal fulfillment. This is because a well-crafted team charter ensures that every team member articulates and negotiates their expectations with the group from the beginning.

A comprehensive yet adaptable team charter should be drafted and agreed upon by all members, and should address the following concerns:

Member roles and responsibilities. These should be clearly defined, with some flexibility (such as members alternating secretarial and management roles) to avoid an overly rigid hierarchy.

Group member expectations. These are expectations both for completing the work and engaging in discussion on the project. There should also be discussion of consequences for failing to meet expectations, as it is best to determine consequences when everyone is level-headed and before anyone has disappointed their teammates.

Procedures for conflict resolution and amending the charter. These procedures could include protocol for addressing disagreements and “firing” a member.

A work schedule or task schedule and timeline. This should cover when members are and are not available, deadlines for different project components, and when/how often group members are expected to meet.

Division of labor on project deliverables. These details include who will work on presentation visuals, what sections of a written report will be drafted by whom, and how the editing and revising will occur. These tasks should be clearly articulated and fairly distributed.

Meeting-Related Documents

A meeting is a group communication in action around a defined agenda, at a set time, for an established duration. Meetings can be effective, ineffective, or a complete waste of time. If time is money and effectiveness and efficiency are your goals, then whether you arrange a meeting, lead a meeting, or participate in one, you want it to be worth your time.^[5]

Meetings can occur face-to-face, but increasingly business and industry are turning to teleconferencing and videoconferencing options. For instance, during the COVID-19 outbreak beginning in 2020, nearly all meetings went virtual.

Meeting Agenda

Regardless of how you meet as a team, group, or committee, you will need to define your purpose in advance with an agenda.^[6] The agenda is the plan for what you want to discuss and accomplish at the meeting. It is usually made up of a list of items, sometimes with a time frame for discussing each item. A meeting also should have a chair (the person who keeps things on track) and a recorder (who records what happens and what decisions are made). The main parts of an agenda for a standard meeting are listed in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4. Meeting agenda elements.

Term	Definition
Title Header	Title, time, date, location, phone number, email contact, and any other information necessary to get all participants together
Participants	Expected participants
Subject Line	Purpose statement
Call to Order	Who will call the meeting to order?
Introductions	If everyone is new, this is optional. If even one person is new, everyone should briefly introduce themselves with their name and respective roles.
Roll Call	A group recorder reviews who is in attendance at the meeting. This may quietly take place while introductions are made.
Reading of the Minutes	Notes from the last meeting are read (if applicable) with an opportunity to correct them. These are often sent out before the meeting so participants have the opportunity to review them and note any needed corrections.
Old Business	List any unresolved issues from the last meeting or issues that were “tabled,” or left until this meeting.
New Business	This is a list of items for discussion and action.
Reports	This is optional and applies if there are subcommittees or groups working on specific, individual action items that require reports to the group or committee.
Good of the Order	This is the time for people to offer any news that relates to the topic of the meeting that has not otherwise been shared or discussed.
Adjournment	This is the official conclusion of the meeting. Note time, date, and place and indicate when the next meeting is scheduled.

For maximum effectiveness, agendas need to be distributed to all participants before the meeting, with enough time for people to respond and add items to the agenda that they feel are necessary. Even if agendas aren’t required in less formal team settings, they are often a good idea to implement, as they help make sure that meetings are productive. Have you ever attended a group meeting only for it to take half an hour for anything productive to be done? Have you ever attended a meeting that began with no one being able to tell/decide what needs to be addressed? Agendas help prevent these scenarios, determine whether a synchronous meeting is necessary at all, and make sure that nothing is forgotten during the meeting.

Meeting Minutes

Minutes record what decisions were made and what important topics were discussed in a meeting. One person is responsible for recording the events of the meeting and distributing the minutes to each member, usually via email or a shared cloud folder. Minutes help projects stay on task. For instance, when all team members have a record of key decisions and discussion points, they do not need to repeat the same discussions at future meetings. In one example, if team members volunteer for a specific task during a meeting, then creating and distributing minutes helps everyone involved remember what they are supposed to do and when.

Strategies for Effective Meetings

You want to have an efficient and effective meeting, but you should recognize that group communication by definition can be chaotic and unpredictable. Here are strategies to mitigate that.

Pre-Meeting Strategies:

• Schedule the meeting in Google Calendar or a similar program so everyone receives a reminder.
• Send out the last meeting’s minutes again, shortly before the next meeting.
• Send out the agenda for the current meeting in advance. How far in advance should be determined by the frequency of the meetings and the timeline of the project.
• Send out reminders for the meeting the day before and the day of the meeting.
• Make sure the participants know their roles and responsibilities prior to the meeting.

Effective Meeting Strategies:

• Start and end your meetings on time.
• Make sure all participants know one another before discussion starts.
• Refer to the meeting agenda to reinforce time frames and tasks.
• Assign someone to take notes that can be converted into minutes for distribution after the meeting.
• Keep the discussion on track, and if you are the chair or leader of a meeting, don’t hesitate to interject and redirect the attention back to the next agenda point.
• If you are the chair, draw a clear distinction between on-topic discussions and those that are more personal, individual, or off-topic.
• Communicate your respect and appreciation for everyone’s time and effort.
• Clearly communicate the time, date, and location or means of contact for the next meeting.

It may also be useful to consult a source like Robert’s Rules of Order to learn more about parliamentary procedure.^[7] Parliamentary procedure is a set of rules and procedures that organizations and groups can use to run meetings and make decisions.

A Note for Group Projects

One of the most common differences between school-based teams and work-based teams is that school-based teams approach teamwork assuming that the fairest option is for each team member to contribute equally to the overall project. School-based teams are generally concerned about making the contribution weights for team members about equal. On the other hand, work-based teams rarely concern themselves with trying to make the work “equal.” Team members in the workplace often have varying responsibilities outside of the team and varying areas of expertise. They contribute to the team project as they have time and as the project needs their knowledge and experience. It is not a bad thing to expect school teams to distribute work equally, but this distinction is important to help you have clearer expectations when you move into working with teams in the workplace.

Additional Resources:

“Collaboration and Group Work,” Writing Space.

“Collaborative Writing Resources,” University of Connecticut.

This chapter was derived from:

Last, Suzan, Candice Neveu,  Kalani Pattison, and  Nicole Hagstrom-Schmidt. Howdy or Hello: Technical and Professional Communication. 2nd Edition. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Libraries, n.d. https://pressbooks.library.tamu.edu/howdyorhello/front-matter/introduction/. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

Last, Suzan, with contributors Candice Neveu and Monika Smith. Technical Writing Essentials: Introduction to Professional Communications in Technical Fields. Victoria, BC: University of Victoria, 2019. https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/technicalwriting/. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

University of Minnesota. Business Communication for Success. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing, 2015. https://open.lib.umn.edu/businesscommunication/. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

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