Glossary

An adverb clause is a dependent clause that starts with a subordinating conjunction (because, if, when, while, although, etc.).

Affixes are prefixes and suffixes.

The Agent of a verb is the participant (person or thing) that is responsible for the verb. In active sentences, the Agent is usually the subject.

Articles are a, an, the and the zero article (no article). They tell us whether the noun phrase refers to any one, all of a thing, or this one/these ones in particular.

The aspect of a verb whether the action or state is complete (simple), ongoing (progressive), or prior (perfect).

Auxiliary verbs (or, helping verbs) are added to a verb group to express tense, aspect, or voice: we are waiting; they have finished; I don't know; the food was cooked. Modal verbs (can, may, could, etc.) are also auxiliaries.

The base form of a verb is the uninflected, or “normal” form (e.g., work, go, eat, be, take)

A bound morpheme can only occur in words if it’s accompanied by one or more other morphemes.

Clauses contain groups of nouns and verbs that are connected together; for example, the simplest clause contains a subject and verb and sometimes an object.

Commons nouns are all nouns that are not names of specific things (people, places, products, countries, languages, etc.). They are not written with a capital letter.

The comparative form of an adjective means "more." It is formed with the -er suffix for short adjectives and the word "more" for other words.

The complement of a verb is the type of word, phrase, or clause that follows it. Complements include direct objects (I saw the ship), prepositional phrases (she went to the concert), infinitives (we need to talk), -ing verbs (they like swimming), and noun clauses (the doctor said that I need to take this medication).

A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined with a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) or a semi-colon.

Compound tenses require a main verb and one or more auxiliary verbs (e.g., am eating, have taken).

Conjunctive adverbs (therefore, however, in addition, thus, etc.) show logical connections between sentences. They cannot join clauses into a sentence in formal written English.

Connectors join clauses and phrases. They include coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, etc.), subordinating conjunctions (because, while, if, when, etc.), conjunctive adverbs (therefore, however, in addition, etc.), and some prepositions (due to, despite, etc.).

The coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. You can remember them by the acronym FANBOYS.

Count nouns represent things that can be separated and counted - we can count names, letters, books, languages, students, trees, and people.

the

Definite reference means this one/these ones only.

A dependent (or, subordinate) clause adds meaning to the main clause such as a time (when…), condition (if…), reason (because…), concession (although…), restriction (people who…), or additional information (which means…). A dependent clause by itself is a fragment not a complete sentence in formal writing.

A derivational morpheme is usually a suffix that changes the meaning or word class (part of speech) of its base (e.g act > action, happy > happiness).

Determiners are articles (a, an, the), quantifiers (most, much, some, a few), numbers, possessives (my, your, Bob's), and certain other words (each, every, both) that tells us which one(s) of the noun are in the noun group.

A finite clause has a subject and verb with which it agrees. You can usually change a finite verb between past and present tense.

The finite verb is the verb in the clause that agrees with the subject and can be modified for past vs. present tense (she is a teacher; he was a lawyer). Modal verbs are considered finite verbs, although they don't technically mark tense.

A fragment is an incomplete sentence. A dependent clause by itself is a fragment in writing (*Because it was raining.). An incomplete independent clause is another type of fragment (*Went to the store.)

A free morpheme is one that can occur as a word on its own. For example, cat is a free morpheme.

Generic reference means the entire category.

The head noun is the main "thing" in a noun group: it's the thing that is modified by articles, quantifiers, adjectives, etc.

The imperative is the command form: Wait! Sit down!  Don't eat! Let's go! Note that imperatives don't have subjects but are considered finite (complete) clauses.

Indefinite reference means "one/some out of many."

An independent clause can stand alone as a complete sentence in formal writing.

An indirect object is a prepositional phrase that is used to complete the meaning of the verb (e.g. go to the office, look for your bag). With some verbs, the indirect object doesn't require a preposition, but it still indicates the recipient of the verb (e.g. give me your homework, persuade your parents that you are responsible).

The infinitive form of the verb is usually considered the "to" form - to go, to be, to eat, to write.

An inflectional suffix is an ending that is added to a word to make it fit the grammar - e.g. the -s on a plural noun or third-person verb (she likes).

An intransitive verb only has one participant, the subject, of the verb. This means the verb has no direct object, or Goal - e.g. things happen, problems exist, prices change.

The WIDA Framework categorizes the texts that students read and write by their Key Language Use (KLU): Narrative, Inform, Explain, or Argue.

Linking verbs connect the subject to the complement (the noun, adjective, or adverb that follows the verb). The most common linking verb is be, but others include: become, define, refer, mean.

Modal verbs express permission, ability, obligation, necessity, or certainty. They are: can, could, may, might, (shall,) should, must, ought to, will, would. Modal verbs are considered a type of auxiliary verb.

Modality is a function which adds the meaning of necessity, obligation, certainty, or urgency: it is possible, maybe, you are supposed to, it is essential to ...

A morpheme is the smallest separable unit in language that carries meaning.

Nominalization is the process of turning another word class (a verb or adjective, for example) into a noun.

Noncount nouns represent things that can’t be separated and counted because they don’t have a clear boundary - e.g. air, music, happiness, grass, health, knowledge, information.

A nonfinite clause has a verb in the -ing, -ed, or to infinitive form that is not part of a complete verb phrase; usually it has no subject (going to school; to watch a movie; written on paper).

Noun clauses are sentences that are embedded in other clauses. The clearest example is indirect speech: she said that golf is fun; they wondered why the alarm was ringing.

Noun groups (or noun phrases) start with a head noun and can be expanded by adding articles (a, an, the), adjectives, prepositional phrases and other modifiers.

When a verb is in the passive voice, the subject is not the Agent - e.g., the subject doesn't do the action of the verb (the email was sent; lessons are taught; the copier was fixed). If you can add "by zombies" to the verb, it is usually passive.

The past participle is the form of the verb used in perfect tenses (I have waited, he has eaten, the students had gone). The past participle of regular verbs ends in -ed. The past participle of irregular verbs often ends in -en.

The past perfect tense is the form: they had run; I had known; you had moved.

The past simple tense is the form: I went; she walked; they ate; the computer crashed.

Phrasal modal verbs have similar meanings to modal verbs (can, could, may, will, etc.) but are formed with a verb that changes for person and tense (is going to, were able to, are supposed to, have/has to).

A phrasal verb has two parts: a verb and a particle (a small word like up, with, to, on, ahead).

Polarity in grammar is the difference between verb phrases that are affirmative (I like coffee, you are listening, the quarterback ran) and negative (I don't like coffee, you aren't listening, the quarterback didn't run).

A prefix is an affix that attaches before its base, like inter- in international.

A prepositional phrase is a preposition (in, of, by, with, from, under, etc.) and the noun that follows (in the beginning, of water, by students, under a table).

The present participle is the -ing form of the verb. It is used in the present progressive tense (I am walking, she was dancing) and other contexts.

The present perfect tense is the form: I have finished; he has left; they have jumped; the teacher has entered.

The present progressive tense is the form: I am waiting, she is listening, they are eating, the doctor is sleeping.

Present simple (or, timeless present) tense is the form: she eats, I like, they go, the students write.

Proper nouns are the names of specific things (people, places, products, languages, etc.) and are written with a capital letter.

Quantifiers modify nouns with information about how much or how many, e.g. many, some, most, all, a number of, both.

The referent of a pronoun is the thing that the pronoun refers to. For example: My father is a doctor; he works at the hospital - the pronoun he refers back to the referent my father.

A register is a context for language use. We often talk about formal and informal registers, but actually there are a wide range of registers, e.g. conversation, lectures, advertising, group text chats, and academic writing.

The relative pronouns are who, that, which, whom, whose.

Reporting verbs describe what someone says, thinks, or believes.

A root (or stem) is the smallest possible base to which affixes are attached (e.g. cat, run, earth).

A run-on sentence, or commas splice, occurs when two independent clauses are joined with a comma but should be separated into two sentences (*Security at the game was tight, therefore the start was delayed).

A simple sentence has one independent clause and no other clauses.

Verbs need to agree with their subject. In English, this happens with the verb be (I am, you/we/they are, he/she/it is) and all other verbs in the third-person singular only (he has, she walks, it goes).

Subordinating conjunctions are words like because, if, when, after, while, although.

A suffix is an affix that follows its base, like -s in cats.

The superlative is the form of an adjective that means "the most." Short adjectives can add the -est inflection. Others use "most." e.g. the largest cake, the most expensive car, the fastest runner.

Transitive verbs require a direct object (she took a picture; he sent an email; I wrote a card).

Unreal conditional sentences express hypotheses (if I had a hammer) or counter-factual situations (if I were you, if you had woken up earlier).

The verb group (verb phrase in traditional grammar) contains the main verb in the clause and any auxiliary (“helping”) or modal verbs that are needed.